Resumen El objetivo general de esta investigación fue conocer la relación entre el involucramiento parental escolar en casa (IPE-C) y la autoeficacia parental escolar (AP-E) durante el confinamiento por la COVID-19. Participaron 349 madres de alumnas(os) de escuelas primarias, públicas y privadas, que respondieron las escalas construidas para este estudio. Los resultados mostraron una relación positiva moderada entre IPE-C y AP-E y la mayoría de las participantes obtuvo puntajes altos en ambos aspectos; asimismo, madres con mayor escolaridad (licenciatura/posgrado) puntuaron más alto tanto en el involucramiento como en la autoeficacia parentales; aquellas con expectativas altas de rendimiento escolar de sus hijas(os), presentaron mayor AP-E comparadas con el grupo con expectativas bajas a regulares, y madres con hijas(os) de 9 a 12 años presentaron menor IPE-C comparadas con el grupo de 6 a 8 años.

Abstract The general objective of this research was to discover the relationship between parents' involvement in home schooling and their self-efficacy during the COVID-19 lockdown. The participants-349 mothers of students in public and private elementary schools-responded to scales constructed for the study. The results show a moderate positive relation between involvement in home schooling and self-efficacy and most of the respondents obtained high scores in both aspects. In addition, mothers with higher educational levels (undergraduate/graduate studies) scored higher in both involvement and self-efficacy. Those with higher expectations for their child's/children's academic achievement had higher self-efficacy compared with the groups of mothers with low to average expectations. Mothers of children aged nine to twelve had lower involvement in home schooling compared with the mothers of children aged six to eight.

Resumen El involucramiento escolar comprende las conductas, creencias y emociones de la población estudiantil hacia su actividad escolar. Es un constructo que se ha investigado ampliamente en el alumnado de educación superior y con menor frecuencia en estudiantes de educación básica. Las personas adolescentes con mayor involucramiento escolar tienen mejor desempeño y se involucran menos en conductas de riesgo, por lo que resulta importante investigar más acerca de este tema. El objetivo del presente artículo es presentar las propiedades psicométricas de un instrumento para evaluar el involucramiento escolar en el estudiantado de secundaria. Esta investigación cuantitativa se realizó con población estudiantil de México y los datos se obtuvieron entre 2018 y 2019. La muestra no probabilística estuvo constituida por 503 estudiantes de secundaria públicas de la Ciudad de Xalapa, Veracruz; 57.5% fueron mujeres y 42.5% hombres, con edades entre 11 y 15 años (M= 13.12, D.E. 0.92). La versión final de la escala está compuesta de diez reactivos con siete opciones de respuesta que evalúan tres dimensiones: conductual, emocional y cognitiva. El análisis factorial confirmatorio mostró índices de ajuste adecuados CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.03, RMSEA= 0.05, y los coeficientes de confiabilidad interna fueron α = 0.88 y λ2 = 0.88. Los resultados indican que la EIE-A es un instrumento adecuado para evaluar el involucramiento escolar en personas adolescentes tempranas.

Abstract School involvement includes the behaviors, beliefs and emotions of student population have towards their school activity, it is a construct that has been widely studied in college students but infrequently in middle school students. Adolescents that are more engaged in school activities demonstrate better performance in class and are less prone to get involved in risk behaviors, which is why a more in-depth study is needed. The objective of this article is to present the psychometric properties of an instrument to evaluate students' school engagement at secondary school level. This quantitative research was carried out with students from Mexico and the data were obtained between 2018 and 2019. The non-probabilistic sample consisted of 503 public high school students from the City of Xalapa, Veracruz; 57.5% were women and 42.5% men, aged between 11 and 15 years (M = 13.12, D.E. 0.92).The final version of the scale contains ten items, each with seven possible responses which evaluates 3 dimensions: behavioral, emotional and cognitive. The confirmatory factor analysis showed adequate goodness of fit indexes CFI = 0.98, TLI = 0.98, SRMR = 0.03, RMSEA = 0.05 and the coefficients of reliability were α = 0.88 y λ2 = 0.88. The results indicate that the ASES is a suitable instrument to evaluate early adolescence school involvement.

Abstract Suicide is considered a public health problem that has increased exponentially, so identify a population on suicide risk as well as associated factors, is essential for prevention in the adolescent population. This study analyzed the influence of self-esteem, hopelessness and sociodemographic factors affect the presence of suicidal risk in adolescents; for this, was worked with a total of 74 participants, men and women with an age range of 15 to 18 years, from a non-clinical population classified into two groups: with and without suicide risk, in equal number and characteristics of age and sex. The Scale of Suicidal Risk of Plutchik (1989; 1998), the scale of Self-Esteem of González-Arratia (2011) and the scale of Desesperanza de Córdoba, Rosales and Eguiluz (2005) were applied. It was found that exist a significant positive relationship between suicidal risk and hopelessness and inverse with self-esteem. Regarding the type of family, single-parent family participants scored higher in suicidal risk and in hopelessness. From the binary logistic regression model, it was obtained that the variable that predicts suicide risk is hopelessness, followed by self-esteem. No differences are reported between men and women in any of the evaluated variables. Therefore, it’s concluded that hopelessness increases the probability of suicidal risk, that’s why it’s essential to include it in future empirical studies, as well as models of prevention and intervention in adolescents.

Resumen El suicidio se considera un problema de salud pública que ha aumentado exponencialmente, por lo que identificar población en riesgo suicida, así como factores asociados es esencial para su prevención en la población adolescente. Este estudio, analizó en qué medida la autoestima, la desesperanza y factores sociodemográficos, inciden en la presencia de riesgo suicida en adolescentes de educación media superior; para ello, se trabajó con un total de 74 participantes hombres y mujeres con un rango de edad de 15 a 18 años, de una población no clínica clasificados en dos grupos: con y sin riesgo suicida, en igual número y características de edad y sexo. Se aplicó la escala de riesgo Suicida de Plutchik (1989; 1998), la escala de Autoestima de González-Arratia (2011) y la escala de Desesperanza de Córdoba, Rosales y Eguiluz (2005). Los resultados indicaron la existencia de una relación positiva significativa entre las variables de riesgo suicida y desesperanza e inversa con autoestima. Respecto al tipo de familia, los participantes de familia monoparental, puntuaron más alto tanto en riesgo suicida como en desesperanza. Del modelo de regresión logística binaria, se obtuvo que la variable que predice el riesgo suicida es la desesperanza, seguida de la autoestima. No se reportan diferencias entre hombres y mujeres en ninguna de las variables evaluadas. Se concluye que la desesperanza incrementa la probabilidad de riesgo suicida, por lo que su inclusión es esencial en futuros estudios empíricos, así como en modelos de prevención e intervención en adolescentes.

Abstract Early Maladaptive Schemas are emotional and cognitive patterns that alter the negative way of processing information and modify the perception of oneself and interpersonal relationships (Young et al., 2003). Since the only instrument in Spanish that evaluates early maladaptive schemes in children has only exploratory analyzes, the objectives of this study were to confirm the structure of the Early Maladaptive Scheme Scale for children from 8 to 12 years of age (Pedroza, 2014) and obtain the criterion validity and reliability of the scale. A non-probabilistic sample of 421 elementary school students from the city of Cancún were selected, 59.9% were girls and 40.1% boys, with a mean age of 9.8 years. The results obtained in the confirmatory factor analysis indicated that when each of the domains is analyzed separately the data confirm to the theoretical model. In relation to the criterion validity, the results obtained found significant correlations of all the schemas with the factors of the depression and anxiety scales. Reliability indices ranged from α = .73 to α = .87 for the dimensions and α = 0.94 for the full scale. It is concluded that this instrument can be valid and reliable for the evaluation of maladaptive schemas in children.

Resumen Los Esquemas Maladaptativos Tempranos son patrones emocionales y cognitivos que alteran de manera negativa el procesamiento de la información y modifican la percepción de uno mismo y de las relaciones interpersonales (Young et al., 2003). Puesto que el único instrumento en español que evalúa esquemas maladaptativos tempranos en niños cuenta únicamente con análisis exploratorios, los objetivos de este estudio fueron confirmar la estructura de la Escala de Esquemas Maladaptativos Tempranos para niños de 8 a 12 años de edad (Pedroza, 2014) y obtener la validez de criterio y la confiabilidad de la escala. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 421 estudiantes de primarias particulares de la ciudad de Cancún, el 59.9% fueron niñas y el 40.1% niños, con una media de edad (de 9.8 años). Los resultados obtenidos en los análisis factoriales confirmatorios efectuados indicaron que los datos se ajustan al modelo teórico cuando se analizan por separado cada uno de los dominios. En relación a la validez de criterio, los resultados obtenidos mostraron correlaciones significativas de todos los esquemas con los factores de las escalas de depresión y de ansiedad. Los índices de confiabilidad fueron entre α= .73 a α= .87para las dimensiones y de α= 0.94 para la escala total. Se concluye que este instrumento puede ser válido y confiable para la evaluación de Esquemas maladaptativo en niños.

Resumen (analítico): Nuestro objetivo en la presente investigación fue analizar si las personas adolescentes de México y Colombia que nunca han intentado suicidarse, presentan más fortalezas internas y externas que quienes sí lo han intentado. Método: se trató de un diseño pre-experimental, de un estudio de caso con una medición. Participaron en el estudio 1987 estudiantes de bachillerato -hombres y mujeres de 15 a 18 años de edad-, seleccionados de manera no probabilística: 991 estudiantes de Colombia y 996 de México. Utilizamos la escala (FIE-A) para medir fortalezas, y cinco indicadores de intento de suicidio. Los resultados principales muestran que los individuos adolescentes que nunca han intentado suicidarse presentan puntajes significativamente más altos en las siguientes fortalezas: apoyo y supervisión de la madre y el padre, importancia de la salud y toma de decisiones. Concluimos que siguen siendo fortalezas protectoras las buenas relaciones parentales, específicamente la importancia que tiene para el individuo joven contar con el apoyo y comunicación del padre y de la madre.

Abstract (analytical): The objective of this research was to analyze whether Mexican and Colombian adolescents who have never attempted suicide present more internal and external strengths than those who have tried. Method: This study used a pre-experimental design and a methodology using case studies. 1,987 students from 15 to 18 years of age were selected in a non-probabilistic manner for participation in the study; 991 Colombian students and 996 Mexican students. A scale (FIE-A) was used to measure strengths and five indicators for attempted suicide. The main results showed that adolescents who have never attempted suicide had significantly higher scores in the following strengths: support and supervision of mother and father, importance of looking after their health and decision-making. The authors conclude that the key differences for young people that have never attempted suicide include good relationships with parents continue to be protective strengths, specifically the importance for a young person to have the support and communication of both parents.

Resumo (analítico): O objetivo da presente investigação foi analisar se os adolescentes mexicanos e colombianos que nunca tentaram se suicidar apresentam mais forças internas e externas que aqueles que sim o tentaram. Método: tratou-se de um desenho preexperimental, de um estudo de caso com uma medida. Participaram no estudo 1987 estudantes de bachillerato homens e mulheres de 15 a 18 anos de idade, selecionados de maneira não probabilística; 991 estudantes colombianos e 996 mexicanos. Utilizou-se a escala (FIE-A) para medir forças e cinco indicadores de tentativa de suicídio. Os resultados principais mostraram que os adolescentes que nunca tentaram se suicidar apresentaram pontuações significativamente mais altas nas seguintes forças: apoio e supervisão dos pais, importância da saúde e tomada de decisões. Conclui-se que os bons relacionamentos parentais continuam a ser pontos fortes de proteção, especificamente a importância para o jovem de ter o apoio e a comunicação de ambos os país.

Abstract The purpose of this study was to identify and comprehend the family aspects associated to the development of an eating disorder (ED), from the point of view of parents with daughters diagnosed with an ED and women diagnosed with an ED. It is a qualitative study where a semi structured interview was used that gathered information about familial support, emotional expression, familial cohesion, problem solving, stressful life events and life cycle transitions, criticism about eating, body shape and weight. The sample comprised nine participants: five parents with daughters diagnosed with an ED, and four women with an ED. A content analysis derived two categories: Difficulties in rearing practices, and Parent’s negative attitudes towards daughters eating, shape and weight. Parents showed difficulty with rearing practices during their daughter’s childhood and adolescence that hindered the identification of the beginning of the ED. Parents also demonstrated affect by expressing approbation words when their daughters were slim and skipped this same expression for those who weren’t. Both aspects were related to the development of an ED. In conclusion, it is highlighted the importance of considering familial aspects in the prevention of ED.

Resumen El objetivo de este trabajo fue identificar y comprender los aspectos familiares (AF) asociados al desarrollo de un trastorno de la conducta alimentaria (TCA), a partir de la percepción de padres con hijas diagnosticadas con TCA y de mujeres con diagnóstico de TCA. Este estudio cualitativo, con base a una entrevista semi-estructurada, abordó temas como: apoyo familiar, expresión de emociones, cohesión familiar, solución de problemas, situaciones de vida estresantes y de transición en el ciclo vital de la familia, burlas y comentarios negativos hacia la alimentación, la forma y el peso corporal. La muestra constó de nueve participantes: cinco padres de hijas diagnosticadas con TCA y cuatro mujeres con diagnóstico de TCA. El análisis de contenido derivó dos categorías: Dificultades en las prácticas parentales y Actitudes negativas de los padres hacia la alimentación, la forma y el peso de sus hijas. Los padres mostraron dificultades en las prácticas de crianza durante la infancia y la adolescencia de su hija, lo que obstaculizó la identificación del inicio del TCA. Además, los padres expresaban su afecto emitiendo palabras de aprobación cuando sus hijas eran delgadas y omitían expresarlo a las que no lo eran. Ambos aspectos relacionados con el desarrollo del TCA. En conclusión, destaca la importancia de considerar los AF en la prevención de los TCA.

Resumen El objetivo de la presente investigación fue analizar y comparar las fortalezas externas en adolescentes de México y Colombia con diferentes niveles de consumo de sustancias. Es un estudio no experimental, de campo y transversal. Participaron 1987 adolescentes (49,87 % de Colombia y 50,13 % de México) hombres y mujeres, con un promedio de edad de 16,64 años. Las fortalezas evaluadas cubrieron dos aspectos generales: familia (Escala de Prácticas Parentales, Andrade & Betancourt, 2010) y amigos (escala elaborada para este estudio). El consumo de sustancias se midió con indicadores del inventario de conductas de riesgo (Andrade & Betan court, 2008). Los resultados indicaron que la hipótesis central del estudio se comprobó, es decir, los jóvenes que no han consumido alcohol, tabaco y/o drogas pre sentan más fortalezas externas que aquellos que sí los han consumido. Los adolescentes mexicanos no con sumidores reportaron más comunicación y supervisión de los padres y menos amigos consumidores y con conductas antisociales; en el caso de los colombianos, el no tener amigos con conductas de riesgo es una for taleza que los protege del consumo.

Abstract The objective of this research was to analyze and com pare the external strengths of adolescents from Mexi co and Colombia with different levels of substance use. It was a non-experimental and cross-sectional field research project involving 1,987 male and fema le adolescents (49.87 % from Colombia and 50.13 % from Mexico) with an average age of 16.64 years. The strengths evaluated covered two broad areas: family (Parenting Practices Scale, Andrade & Betancourt, 2010) and friends (scale developed for this study). Substance use was measured with indicators of a behavioral risk inventory (Andrade & Betancourt, 2008). The results indicated that the central hypothesis of the study was confirmed in the sense that young people who have not consumed alcohol, tobacco, and/or drugs have more external strengths than those who have served those substances. Non-consuming Mexican adolescents re ported more parental communication and supervision and fewer consuming friends and antisocial behavior. In the case of the Colombians, not having friends who engaged in risky behaviors was an asset that protected them from consumption.

Resumo O objetivo da presente pesquisa foi analisar e compa rar as fortalezas externas em adolescentes do México e da Colômbia com diferentes níveis de consumo de substâncias. É um estudo não experimental, de campo e transversal. Participaram 1987 adolescentes (49,87 % da Colômbia e 50,13 % do México) homens e mulhe res, com uma idade média de 16,64 anos. As fortalezas avaliadas cobriram dois aspectos gerais: família (Escala de Práticas Parentais Andrade & Betancourt, 2010) e amigos (escala elaborada para este estudo). O consumo de substâncias mediu-se com indicadores do inventário de condutas de risco (Andrade & Betancourt, 2008). Os resultados indicaram que a hipótese central do estudo se comprovou, é dizer, os jovens que não têm consumido álcool, tabaco e/ou drogas apresentam mais fortalezas externas que aqueles que sim as têm consumido. Os adolescentes mexicanos não consumidores reportaram maior comunicação e supervisão dos pais e menos amigos consumidores e com condutas antissociais; no caso dos colombianos o não ter amigos com condutas de risco é uma fortaleza que os protege do consumo.

In Mexico alcohol consumption has increased mainly in adolescents. It has been identified that the ability to resist peer pressure can be a factor that protects the young from alcohol, tobacco and drugs, although this does not have an instrument to assess the skill specifically for alcohol. The aim of this work was to design and validate a scale that assesses the ability to resist peer pressure specifically for alcohol in public high schools and college students from Mexico City, and assessed whether there were significant differences in the resistance level by gender and level of alcohol consumption. The sample was not random and consisted of 900 public high schools (38.6%) and college (61.4%) students of Mexico City (42.9% men and 57.1% women) with a average age was 15.6 years (sd = 2.5). Exploratory factor analysis yielded a single factor of six items with good level of reliability, afterwards was a confirmatory factor analysis in which the fit indices performed well and kept the six items. Women showed greater resistance to peer pressure than men and it was found that young people who have a deficit in the ability to resist peer pressure have higher levels of alcohol consumption so it is important to strengthen that skill in prevention programs.

En México el consumo de alcohol se ha incrementado principalmente en los adolescentes. Aunque se ha demostrado que la habilidad de resistencia a la presión de pares es un factor que protege al joven del consumo de alcohol, tabaco y drogas, aún no se cuenta con un instrumento que evalúe dicha habilidad específicamente para el consumo de alcohol. El objetivo de este trabajo fue diseñar y validar una escala que evalúa la resistencia a la presión de pares, específicamente para el consumo de alcohol en estudiantes de nivel medio y medio superior de la ciudad de México; además se evaluó si existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en el nivel de resistencia por sexo y por nivel de consumo de alcohol. La muestra fue no probabilística y estuvo conformada por 900 estudiantes de nivel medio (38.6%) y medio superior (61.4%) de la Ciudad de México (42.9% hombres y 57.1% mujeres) con una media de edad de 15.6 años (de=2.5). Mediante un análisis factorial exploratorio se obtuvo un solo factor de seis reactivos con buen nivel de confiabilidad, posteriormente se realizó un análisis factorial confirmatorio el cual tuvo buenos índices de ajuste y mantuvo los seis reactivos. Las mujeres mostraron mayor resistencia a la presión de pares que los hombres y se encontró que los jóvenes que tienen un déficit en la habilidad de resistir a la presión de pares presentan mayores niveles de consumo de alcohol, por lo que es importante el fortalecimiento de dicha habilidad en programas de prevención.

Introduction Emotional Dysregulation (ED) is the decreased capacity to experiment and differentiate an ample range of emotions, as well as to monitor, evaluate and modify intense emotional states. ED is associated with the most frequent emotional problems such as depression, anxiety, and with maladaptive behaviors thought to serve an emotion and impulsivity regulating function, including deliberate self-harm. The Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) was developed for adults, has good internal consistency (Cronbach's α=0.93), and good test-retest reliability (r=0.88). Objectives To translate and determine the psychometric properties of the Spanish version of the DERS (DERS-E) in a nonclinical Mexican adolescent's sample. Method 455 students of a public junior high school in Mexico City participated; the mean age was 13.1 ±.95 years old. The scale was administrated in groups of 40 students, who concurrently answered the Spanish version of the following measures: i) Self-injury Schedule; ii) Beck Depression Inventory; and iii) Plutchik's Impulsivity Scale. Results The first confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) showed that the data did not replicate the original six-factor structure with 36 items (χ2=22339.4, df= 6, p<0.05). An exploratory factorial analysis showed that the data adjusted with a 24 items and 4-factor model (corroborated with a second CFA: χ2=259.729, df=230, p>0.05); the subscales Cronbach' a were from .85 to .68. The validity through contrasted groups and the correlation with concurrent scales showed significant results (Pearson's r of .51 to .76, p<0.05). Conclusions The DERS-E with adolescents did not replicate the factorial structure of the original scale, but showed a similar and multidimensional structure of four factors and showed good psychometric properties with respect to internal consistency and concurrent validity.

La desregulación emocional (DE) es la capacidad disminuida para experimentar y diferenciar un amplio rango de emociones, así como para monitorear, evaluar y modificar estados emocionales intensos. La DE se ha asociado a los más frecuentes padecimientos, como depresión, ansiedad y conductas desadaptativas, incluidas la impulsividad y las autolesiones no suicidas. La escala Difficulties in Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS por sus siglas en inglés) fue desarrollada para evaluar estas dificultades en adultos, posee una buena consistencia interna (α de Cronbach=0.93) y buena confiabilidad test-retest (r=0.88). Objetivos Traducir y determinar las propiedades psicométricas de la DERS en español (DERS-E) en una muestra no clínica de adolescentes mexicanos. Método Participaron 455 estudiantes de una escuela secundaria pública de la Ciudad de México, de los cuales 226 eran hombres (49.7%) y 229 mujeres (50.3%); la edad promedio fue de 13.1±.95 años. La escala fue administrada grupalmente (grupos de 40 estudiantes), quienes contestaron concurrentemente los inventarios de: i) Autolesiones, ii) Depresión de Beck, iii) Impulsividad de Plutchik. Resultados El primer análisis factorial confirmatorio (AFC) mostró que los datos no replicaban la estructura original de seis factores con 36 reactivos (χ²=22339.4, gl=6, p<0.05). Un análisis factorial exploratorio mostró que los datos se ajustaban a un modelo de 24 reactivos y cuatro factores (corroborados con un segundo AFC: χ²=259.729, gl=230, p>0.05). Las alphas de Cronbach de cada subescala tuvieron un rango entre .85 y .68. La validez por medio de grupos contrastados y la correlación con las medidas concurrentes mostraron resultados significativos (r de Pearson de .51 a .76, p<0.05). Discusión y conclusiones La DERS-E con adolescentes no replicó la estructura factorial de la escala original, pero sí presentó una estructura similar, multidimensional, con cuatro factores y mostró buenas características psicométricas, tanto de consistencia interna como de validez concurrente.

The objectives of this study were to determine whether differences exist between parents and children in parenting practices, and behavioral and emotional problems of children, to analyze the degree of agreement between the perceptions of children about parenting practices and their emotional and behavioral problems, and parenting practices and problems of the children expressed by the father and mother, and comparing the prediction of parenting practices in emotional and behavioral problems of children from the perspective of the mother, father and children. 552 children participated (52.5% boys and 47.5% girls), with an average age of 10.8 years, students from public schools; 395 mothers and 349 fathers of children were also involved. To measure parenting practices Andrade and Betancourt scale (2010) was used, which consists of five dimensions for mother (Communication, Autonomy, Imposition, Behavioral control and Psychological control) and four for father. (Communication/Behavioral Control, Autonomy, Imposition and psychological control). Andrade and Betancourt scale (2009) was used for measuring emotional and behavioral problems; it assesses eight dimensions (rule breaking, somatic problems, depression, attention problems, harassment, friend's problems, aggressive behavior and thought problems). The results showed that significant differences exist between parents and children in the reporting of emotional problems but not for behavioral problems, we also found no significant differences between the assessments made for mothers and fathers in both types of problems. Regarding parenting practices, only significant differences were found between the perceptions of children, and what was expressed by mothers, in the comparison between parents and children no significant differences were found. As for predicting the level of parenting practices in emotional and behavioral problems of children, from the perspective of different informants, the results showed that the percentages of explained variance of emotional and behavioral problems of children when they are informants are higher than, when the mother and father are the informants.

Los objetivos del presente estudio fueron: determinar si existen diferencias entre padres e hijos en prácticas parentales y problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos; analizar el grado de acuerdo entre la percepción de los hijos acerca de las prácticas parentales y sus problemas emocionales y conductuales y las prácticas parentales y problemas de los hijos expresados por el padre y la madre y comparar el nivel de predicción de las prácticas parentales en los problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos desde la perspectiva de la madre, el padre y el hijo(a). Participaron 552 niños (52.5% niños y 47.5% niñas), con una edad promedio de 10.8 años; también participaron 395 mamás y 349 papás de los niños. Se utilizó la escala de Prácticas Parentales de Andrade y Betancourt (2010) y la escala de Problemas Emocionales y Conductuales de Andrade y Betancourt (2009). En cuanto el nivel de predicción de las prácticas parentales en los problemas emocionales y conductuales de los hijos, los resultados mostraron mayores porcentajes de varianza explicados cuando los niños y niñas son los informantes que cuando lo son la madre o el padre.

Introduction Stressful life events have been seen to influence the onset and development of depressive symptoms in adolescents. These are originated by family, personal and economic situations altering the individuals' normal activities. Objective and method The objective of this study was to identify the relationship with and the effect of stressful life events on symptoms of depression in adolescent high-school students, as well as to determine if there are differences between males and females. 2 292 adolescents, aged 15 to 19 years, were included (54% females and 46% males). Both the CES-D-R revised version of the Center of Epidemiological Studies Depression Scale and the Sandín SV Life Events Questionnaire were used. Statistical Analysis. In order to assess the depressive symptoms and the life events degree of stress variables, we performed descriptive analyses, Student t-tests, Pearson correlations and stepwise multiple regression analyses. Results The results indicate that 15.6% of the adolescents had depressive symptoms (CES-D-R) and 80.4% had suffered some family stressful life event. There were statistically significant differences in the scores for the life events degree of stress when it was analyzed by sex, with a higher mean being found in females. A significant relationship was found between depressive symptoms and the degree of stress of life events related with the social area (r = 0.34; p<0.001). Additionally, the degree of stress of the life events dimensions was found to predict the presence of depressive symptoms in adolescents by 21%. Conclusions The degree of stress of life events is related with the presence of depressive symptoms in adolescents. Furthermore, the fact of being a female and having experienced any stressful life event is associated with a higher depressive symptoms score.

Introducción En los adolescentes se ha observado que los sucesos de vida estresantes pueden tener una influencia en el inicio y desarrollo de los síntomas de depresión; éstos se originan de situaciones familiares, personales y económicas que alteran las actividades normales de los individuos. Objetivo y método Identificar la relación y el efecto de los sucesos vitales estresantes sobre los síntomas de depresión en adolescentes estudiantes de bachillerato, así como determinar si existen diferencias entre hombres y mujeres. Participaron 2292 adolescentes de 15 a 19 años de edad (54% mujeres y 46% hombres). Se utilizó la versión revisada en español de la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos (CES-D-R) y el Cuestionario de Sucesos Vitales de Sandín SV Análisis Estadístico. Para evaluar las variables síntomas de depresión y grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales se realizaron análisis descriptivos, t de Student, correlación de Pearson y regresión múltiple por pasos. Resultados Los resultados indican que 15.6% de los adolescentes presentaron síntomas de depresión (CES-D-R) y que 80.4% había sufrido algún suceso vital estresante familiar. Existen diferencias estadísticamente significativas en los puntajes de grados de estrés de los sucesos vitales cuando se analizó por sexo, encontrando una media más alta en mujeres. Se encontró una relación significativa entre síntomas de depresión y el grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales del área social (r = 0.34; p<0.001). Además se encontró que el grado de estrés de las dimensiones de los sucesos vitales predice en 21% la presencia de síntomas de depresión en los adolescentes. Conclusiones El grado de estrés de los sucesos vitales se relaciona con la presencia de síntomas de depresión en los adolescentes. Además, el hecho de ser mujer y haber vivido algún suceso vital estresante se asocia a un mayor puntaje de síntomas de depresión.

The objective of this study was to analyze the predictive power that parental practices have in adolescents' depressive symptomatology considering children's and parents' gender. A non-probabilistic sample was used, consisting of 1934 adolescents, from three different cities from the Mexican Republic (26.5% from Mexico City, 26.7% from Poza Rica, Veracruz, and 46.8% from Culiacán, Sinaloa). 51.4% were males and 48.6% were females, with an age range from 11 to 17 years old, and a mean of 13.3 years old. Nine dimensions of parental practices were evaluated, five for the mother: Communication, Autonomy, Imposition, Psychological control, and Behavioral control; and four dimensions for the father: Communication/Behavioral control, Autonomy, Imposition, and Psychological control. To evaluate the depressive symptomatology, a revised and adapted for Mexican population version of the Scale of Depression of the Epidemiologic Studies Center (CES-D-R) was used. The results showed that women obtained higher scores in depressive symptomatology than men. Depressive symptomatology was associated in a positive way to psychological control and imposition, in both parents, and in a negative way with communication, autonomy and behavioral control, both maternal and paternal. Linear regression analyses were done to determine the effect of parental practices in the depressive symptomatology, which were conducted by gender and by city. In general, the results showed that women had a higher percentage of explained variance (from 26% to 31%) than men (from 6% to 25%) and the dimension that explained the higher variance in most of the groups was maternal psychological control, except on men from Mexico City and Culiacán.

El objetivo de este estudio fue analizar el poder predictivo de las prácticas parentales en la sintomatologia depresiva de los adolescentes, considerando el sexo del hijo y el sexo de los padres. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilistica de 1934 adolescentes, procedentes de tres ciudades de la República Mexicana (26.5% de la Ciudad de México, 26.7% de Poza Rica, Veracruz y 46.8% de Culiacán, Sinaloa). El 51.4% fueron hombres y el 48.6% mujeres, con un rango de edad de 11 a 17 años y una media de 13.3 años. Se evaluaron nueve dimensiones de prácticas parentales, cinco para la madre: Comunicación, Autonomia, Imposición, Control psicológico y Control conductual; y cuatro dimensiones para el padre: Comunicación/Control conductual, Autonomia, Imposición y Control psicológico. Para evaluar la sintomatologia depresiva, se utilizó la versión revisada y adaptada para población mexicana de la Escala de Depresión del Centro de Estudios Epidemiológicos (CES-D-R). Los resultados mostraron que las mujeres obtuvieron puntajes más altos en sintomatologia depresiva que los hombres. La sintomatologia depresiva se asoció de forma positiva con el control psicológico e imposición de ambos padres y de forma negativa con la comunicación, autonomia y control conductual tanto materno como paterno. Se realizaron análisis de regresión lineal para determinar el efecto de las prácticas parentales en la sintomatologia depresiva, los cuales se llevaron a cabo por sexo y por lugar de residencia. De manera general, los resultados mostraron que en las mujeres fue mayor el porcentaje de varianza explicado (de 26 a 31%) en comparación con los hombres (de 6 a 25%) y la dimensión que mayor varianza explicó en la mayoria de los grupos fue el control psicológico materno, excepto en los hombres de la Ciudad de México y Culiacán.

El propósito de esta investigación es determinar si existen diferencias de acuerdo con el género de los padres en los efectos del control parental psicológico y conductual en los problemas emocionales y de conducta de los hijos hombres y mujeres. Se seleccionó una muestra no probabilística de 587 estudiantes de secundaria pública de Ciudad de México. El 46,8% fueron hombres y el 53,2%, mujeres, con una media de edad de 13,8 años. Se utilizó la escala de Percepción de Control Paterno y Materno para adolescentes y la versión ajustada del Youth Self-report. Los resultados mostraron que, en general, el control psicológico tanto materno como paterno tuvo una mayor influencia que el control conductual en la presencia de problemas emocionales y de conducta.

The purpose of this research project was to determine whether gender made a difference with respect to the effects of psychological and behavioral parental control on the emotional and behavioral problems in male and female adolescents. A non-random sample of 587 Mexico City public high school students with a mean age of 13.8 was selected, of which 46.8% were male and 53.2% female. The Maternal and Paternal Control Perception Scale for adolescents and the adjusted version of the Youth Self-report were used. The overall results showed that both maternal and paternal psychological control had a greater influence than behavioral control on the presence of emotional and behavioral problems.

The aims of this study were to formulate calcium-alginate beads containing glibenclamide, characterize the resulting microparticles, evaluate the release characteristics of this type of delivery system in an in vitro dissolution test, and compare it with two commercially available trademarks (Daonil® and Glibetab®). We obtained glibenclamide loaded calcium-alginate beads with a rough surface and a particle size between 150-200 µm. For the in vitro dissolution test Daonil® at 45 min showed a Q > 70%, whereas Glibetab® and glibenclamide calcium-alginate beads a Q < 70%; in spite of that glibenclamide calcium-alginate beads showed significant release properties.

Summary: In alcoholism research, the exploration of the spirituality have a great importance. Some authors keep distance from this concept and it has been commonly criticized. However, other researchers (Gorsuch, Connors, Tonigan, and Miller) have agreed in pointing out to this and other variables, like religion for example, as important elements that protect individuals from addiction, also as factors that favor treatment and mediate in long abstinence periods. According to Morjaria and Orford, the assumption of a link between spirituality and alcoholism exist because is one of the principles of Alcoholics Anonymous (AA) foundation. In the present, the work of AA is one of the most popular approaches in recovering from alcoholism, within Mexico and in other countries as well, and although its effectiveness over alcohol consumption is still debatable, not well documented and inconclusive. There is evidence suggesting that a regular participation in the group meetings could benefit a lot of individuals; especially those whose participation in all the activities is more enthusiastic and those who develop more beliefs inside the groups. A key element in AA's philosophy is the acceptance of a spiritual strength that comes from a bigger power than themselves (Higher Power: can be understood as a "whole" or the power represented by God), which helps in the recovery process. AA acknowledge the importance of religious thoughts, and the relevance of spiritual tradition in the recovery of each alcoholic, however, the core of the treatment is not placed on these aspects, but it is on spirituality. According to AA, every individual may have his own definition of spirituality and it is outlined by his personal orientation. In that respect, Forcehimes, Kurtz, and Ketchman said that spirituality is a transformation breakthrough marked by a personal experience of "spiritual awakening", all resulting from regular participation to the meetings and from the daily practice of the twelve-step program. The twelve-step program represents one of the most important components in the recovery strategy of AA and reflects the spiritual nature of the program. DiClemente and Gabhainn have noted that the practice of the steps has fundamental implications in reaching and maintaining abstinence, especially for those who practice them on a regular way. However, available evidence about the benefits that each step brings to the alcoholics is still limited and sometimes controversial. There are very few investigations in Mexico about the role of spirituality in the alcoholic recovery process. AA have not been sufficiently studied and there is a lot unknown about their treatment strategies. The objective of this study is to know if the effectiveness of the practice of the 12 steps, the frequency of their practice, and the experience of the "spiritual awakening" (that AA consider as a consequence of practicing the steps) influence on the maintenance of abstinence in members of AA. The sample was non probabilistic and included 192 AA members from traditional groups (or "an hour and a half" groups, named after the time meetings last) from southern Mexico City area. Individuals were divided in two groups: relapsed and not relapsed. The first group included 49 alcoholics (90 percent of males, 10 percent of females) who relapsed after an abstinence period of three or more months within AA (abstinence mean = 2.4 years). The second group included 143 subjects (86 percent of males, 14 percent of females) who have not relapsed since they entered AA or for a ten year period or longer. To determine the influence of the spiritual principles of the 12 steps program, a question was designed to measure the practice of each one of them, as well as a scale to explore the frequency of such practice. Also, since AA considers the "spiritual awakening" as a result of working with the steps, a question about its occurrence was included. Results showed that not relapsed individuals have practiced significantly more steps (mean=9, SD=4.1) than the relapsed ones (mean=7, SD=4.4) (t=2.304, df=190, p=.02). Results also showed that frequency in the practice of: thinking about events that led to alcoholism (steps 4 and 5), humbleness to accept help from a Higher Power (steps 6, 7, and 11), acceptance of responsibility to reduce the consequences of addiction (steps 8, and 9), and helping other alcoholics (step 12), is significantly different between both groups; not relapsed individuals had a more frequent practice of these steps. Since AA assumes that working the steps leads to experience a spiritual conversion or "spiritual awakening" (it implies a change in the self-concept, in the view of the world, and stop being self-centered), a regression analysis was performed to test this assumption. Results suggested that a greater involvement in steps 4 to 12 -usually considered as steps for action and maintenance- increases 10 percent the probability for experiencing the "spiritual awakening" (p=.000). Besides this experience increases two times the probability for staying sober in not relapsed subjects (Exp[B]=2.095, CI=1.032-4.253, p=.04). No statistical differences were found in the practice of steps 13, but this does not mean that they are not important, for these are the most practiced steps in both groups. However, the fact that relapsed alcoholics put great value upon these steps, points out their willingness to stop consuming (apparently they have accepted being powerless before alcohol, and to surrender their will and life to a Higher Power), but it also underlines their difficulty in attaching to some of the beliefs and activities that AA consider as base to complete the practice the steps and to develop spirituality. Several of these activities are related to elements in the program that mean more action and certain degree of confusion and discouragement for those who focus in staying sober only based on a vague idea of what constitutes the Higher Power. AA recognizes the first three steps as the facilitators of abstinence and as the beginning of the path to "spiritual awakening" through an aid that transcends the individual (Higher Power), but they also emphasize that many times this is not enough for the recovery. Paradoxically, they state that this condition could lead to a feeling of false security that could invite the alcoholic to flirt with the idea of having "just one drink". Therefore, it is not casual that relapsed individuals in the sample of this study focus on practicing the first three steps, though more research is needed to further confirmation. These results allow concluding that spacing out the practice of the 12 steps or not practicing them at all, produces low levels of spirituality, which could be the cause of a relapse. Results also showed that a higher level of spirituality (linked to the practice of more steps) has an important influence on the recovery of alcoholics, particularly for those whose practice of the steps is more regular. The sample of this study showed that its particular way to develop spirituality (spiritual awakening) and therefore maintain abstinence requires of a process that involves cognitive, emotional, and behavioral activity (steps 4-12), and not only to embrace the conviction of alcoholism as a disease susceptible of being cured (steps 1-3). Finally it is important to indicate that the 12 steps program represent a particular way of expressing spirituality, and that they are limited to specific cognitions and practices; thus, more research is required to replicate these results with other measures of spirituality.

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